托福考试阅读原题

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托福阅读真题:TPO11原文

Ancient Egyptian Sculpture

In order to understand ancient Egyptian art, it is vital to know as much as possible of the elite Egyptians' view of the world and the functions and contexts of the art produced for them. Without this knowledge we can appreciate only the formal content of Egyptian art, and we will fail to understand why it was produced or the concepts that shaped it and caused it to adopt its distinctive forms. In fact, a lack of understanding concerning the purposes of Egyptian art has often led it to be compared unfavorably with the art of other cultures: Why did the Egyptians not develop sculpture in which the body turned and twisted through space like classical Greek statuary? Why do the artists seem to get left and right confused? And why did they not discover the geometric perspective as European artists did in the Renaissance? The answer to such questions has nothing to do with a lack of skill or imagination on the part of Egyptian artists and everything to do with the purposes for which they were producing their art.

The majority of three-dimensional representations, whether standing, seated, or kneeling, exhibit what is called frontality: they face straight ahead, neither twisting nor turning. When such statues are viewed in isolation, out of their original context and without knowledge of their function, it is easy to criticize them for their rigid attitudes that remained unchanged for three thousand years. Frontality is, however, directly related to the functions of Egyptian statuary and the contexts in which the statues were set up. Statues were created not for their decorative effect but to play a primary role in the cults of the gods, the king, and the dead. They were designed to be put in places where these beings could manifest themselves in order to be the recipients of ritual actions. Thus it made sense to show the statue looking ahead at what was happening in front of it, so that the living performer of the ritual could interact with the divine or deceased recipient. Very often such statues were enclosed in rectangular shrines or wall niches whose only opening was at the front, making it natural for the statue to display frontality. Other statues were designed to be placed within an architectural setting, for instance, in front of the monumental entrance gateways to temples known as pylons, or in pillared courts, where they would be placed against or between pillars: their frontality worked perfectly within the architectural context.

Statues were normally made of stone, wood, or metal. Stone statues were worked from single rectangular blocks of material and retained the compactness of the original shape. The stone between the arms and the body and between the legs in standing figures or the legs and the seat in seated ones was not normally cut away. From a practical aspect this protected the figures against breakage and psychologically gives the images a sense of strength and power, usually enhanced by a supporting back pillar. By contrast, wooden statues were carved from several pieces of wood that were pegged together to form the finished work, and metal statues were either made by wrapping sheet metal around a wooden core or cast by the lost wax process. The arms could be held away from the body and carry separate items in their hands; there is no back pillar. The effect is altogether lighter and freer than that achieved in stone, but because both perform the same function, formal wooden and metal statues still display frontality.

Apart from statues representing deities, kings, and named members of the elite that can be called formal, there is another group of three-dimensional representations that depicts generic figures, frequently servants, from the nonelite population. The function of these is quite different. Many are made to be put in the tombs of the elite in order to serve the tomb owners in the afterlife. Unlike formal statues that are limited to static poses of standing, sitting, and kneeling, these figures depict a wide range of actions, such as grinding grain, baking bread, producing pots, and making music, and they are shown in appropriate poses, bending and squatting as they carry out their tasks.

Paragraph 1: In order to understand ancient Egyptian art, it is vital to know as much as possible of the elite Egyptians' view of the world and the functions and contexts of the art produced for them. Without this knowledge we can appreciate only the formal content of Egyptian art, and we will fail to understand why it was produced or the concepts that shaped it and caused it to adopt its distinctive forms. In fact, a lack of understanding concerning the purposes of Egyptian art has often led it to be compared unfavorably with the art of other cultures: Why did the Egyptians not develop sculpture in which the body turned and twisted through space like classical Greek statuary? Why do the artists seem to get left and right confused? And why did they not discover the geometric perspective as European artists did in the Renaissance? The answer to such questions has nothing to do with a lack of skill or imagination on the part of Egyptian artists and everything to do with the purposes for which they were producing their art.

托福阅读真题:TPO11题目

1. The word “vital” in the passage is closest in meaning to

attractive

essential

usual

practical

2. Paragraph 1 suggests that one reason Egyptian art is viewed less favorably than other art is that Egyptian art lacks

a realistic sense of human body proportion

a focus on distinctive forms of varying sizes

the originality of European art

the capacity to show the human body in motion

3. In paragraph 1, the author mentions all of the following as necessary in appreciating Egyptian art EXCEPT an understanding of

the reasons why the art was made

the nature of aristocratic Egyptian beliefs

the influences of Egyptian art on later art such as classical Greek art

how the art was used

Paragraph 2: The majority of three-dimensional representations, whether standing, seated, or kneeling, exhibit what is called frontality: they face straight ahead, neither twisting nor turning. When such statues are viewed in isolation, out of their original context and without knowledge of their function, it is easy to criticize them for their rigid attitudes that remained unchanged for three thousand years. Frontality is, however, directly related to the functions of Egyptian statuary and the contexts in which the statues were set up. Statues were created not for their decorative effect but to play a primary role in the cults of the gods, the king, and the dead. They were designed to be put in places where these beings could manifest themselves in order to be the recipients of ritual actions. Thus it made sense to show the statue looking ahead at what was happening in front of it, so that the living performer of the ritual could interact with the divine or deceased recipient. Very often such statues were enclosed in rectangular shrines or wall niches whose only opening was at the front, making it natural for the statue to display frontality. Other statues were designed to be placed within an architectural setting, for instance, in front of the monumental entrance gateways to temples known as pylons, or in pillared courts, where they would be placed against or between pillars: their frontality worked perfectly within the architectural context.

4. According to paragraph 2, why are Egyptian statues portrayed frontality?

To create a psychological effect of distance and isolation

To allow them to fulfill their important role in ceremonies of Egyptian life

To provide a contrast to statues with a decorative function

To suggest the rigid, unchanging Egyptian philosophical attitudes

5. The word “context” in the passage is closest in meaning to

connection

influence

environment

requirement

6. The author mentions “an architectural setting” in the passage in order to

suggest that architecture was as important as sculpture to Egyptian artists

offer a further explanation for the frontal pose of Egyptian statues

explain how the display of statues replaced other forms of architectural decoration

illustrate the religious function of Egyptian statues

7. The word “they” in the passage refers to

statues

gateways

temples

pillared courts

Paragraph 3: Statues were normally made of stone, wood, or metal. Stone statues were worked from single rectangular blocks of material and retained the compactness of the original shape. The stone between the arms and the body and between the legs in standing figures or the legs and the seat in seated ones was not normally cut away. From a practical aspect this protected the figures against breakage and psychologically gives the images a sense of strength and power, usually enhanced by a supporting back pillar. By contrast, wooden statues were carved from several pieces of wood that were pegged together to form the finished work, and metal statues were either made by wrapping sheet metal around a wooden core or cast by the lost wax process. The arms could be held away from the body and carry separate items in their hands; there is no back pillar. The effect is altogether lighter and freer than that achieved in stone, but because both perform the same function, formal wooden and metal statues still display frontality.

8. According to paragraph 3, why were certain areas of a stone statue left uncarved?

To prevent damage by providing physical stability

To emphasize that the material was as important as the figure itself

To emphasize that the figure was not meant to be a real human being

To provide another artist with the chance to finish the carving

9. The word “core” in the passage is closest in meaning to

material

layer

center

frame

10. According to paragraph 3, which of the following statements about wooden statues is true?

Wooden statues were usually larger than stone statues.

Wooden statues were made from a single piece of wood.

Wooden statues contained pieces of metal or stone attached to the front.

Wooden statues had a different effect on the viewer than stone statues.

Paragraph 4: Apart from statues representing deities, kings, and named members of the elite that can be called formal, there is another group of three-dimensional representations that depicts generic figures, frequently servants, from the nonelite population. The function of these is quite different. Many are made to be put in the tombs of the elite in order to serve the tomb owners in the afterlife. Unlike formal statues that are limited to static poses of standing, sitting, and kneeling, these figures depict a wide range of actions, such as grinding grain, baking bread, producing pots, and making music, and they are shown in appropriate poses, bending and squatting as they carry out their tasks.

11. The word depicts in the passage is closest in meaning to

imagines

classifies

elevates

portrays

12. According to paragraph 4, what is the difference between statues that represent the Egyptian elite and statues that represent the nonelite classes?

Statues of the elite are included in tombs, but statues of the nonelite are not.

Statues of the elite are in motionless poses, while statues of the nonelite are in active poses.

Statues of the elite are shown standing, while statues of the nonelite are shown sitting or kneeling.

Statues of the elite serve an important function, while statues of the nonelite are decorative.

Paragraph 4: Apart from statues representing deities, kings, and named members of the elite that can be called formal, there is another group of three-dimensional representations that depicts generic figures, frequently servants, from the nonelite population. The function of these is quite different. Many are made to be put in the tombs of the elite in order to serve the tomb owners in the afterlife. Unlike formal statues that are limited to static poses of standing, sitting, and kneeling, these figures depict a wide range of actions, such as grinding grain, baking bread, producing pots, and making music, and they are shown in appropriate poses, bending and squatting as they carry out their tasks.

13. Look at the four squares [] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

In fact, it is the action and not the figure itself that is important.

Where would the sentence best fit?

: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

The distinctive look of ancient Egyptian sculpture was determined largely by its function.

Answer Choices

The twisted forms of Egyptian statues indicate their importance in ritual actions.

The reason Egyptian statues are motionless is linked to their central role in cultural rituals.

Stone, wood, and metal statues all display the feature of frontality.

Statues were more often designed to be viewed in isolation rather than placed within buildings.

The contrasting poses used in statues of elite and nonelite Egyptians reveal their difference in social status.

Although the appearances of formal and generic statues differ, they share the same function.

托福阅读真题:TPO11答案

1. 2

2. 4

3. 3

4. 2

5. 3

6. 2

7. 1

9. 3

10. 4

11. 4

12. 2

13. 4

14. The reason Egyptian

Stone, wood, and

The contrasting poses

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★ 托福考试解析之一:独立口语和写作

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托福阅读原文

China has one of the world's oldestcontinuous civilizations—despite invasions and occasional foreign rule. Acountry as vast as China with so long-lasting a civilization has a complexsocial and visual history, within which pottery and porcelain play a majorrole.

The function and status of ceramics inChina varied from dynasty to dynasty, so they may be utilitarian, burial,trade-collectors', or even ritual objects, according to their quality and theera in which they were made. The ceramics fall into three broadtypes—earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain—for vessels, architectural itemssuch as roof tiles, and modeled objects and figures. In addition, there was animportant group of sculptures made for religious use, the majority of whichwere produced in earthenware.

The earliest ceramics were fired toearthenware temperatures, but as early as the fifteenth century stone wares were being made with glazed surfaces. During theSix Dynasties period (AD 265-589), kilns in north China were producinghigh-fired ceramics of good quality. White wares produced in Hebei and Henanprovinces from the seventh to the tenth centuries evolved into the highlyprized porcelains of the Song dynasty (AD. 960-1279), long regarded as one ofthe high points in the history of China's ceramic industry. The tradition ofreligious sculpture extends over most historical periods but is less clearlydelineated than that of stone wares or porcelains, for it embraces the oldcustom of earthenware burial ceramics with later religious images andarchitectural ornament. Ceramic products also include lead-glazed tomb modelsof the Han dynasty, three-color lead-glazed vessels and figures of the Tangdynasty, and Ming three-color temple ornaments, in which the motifs wereoutlined in a raised trail of slip—as well as the many burial ceramics producedin imitation of vessels made in materials of higher intrinsic value.

Trade between the West and the settled andprosperous Chinese dynasties introduced new forms and different of the most far-reaching examples is the impact of the fine ninth-centuryAD. Chinese porcelain wares imported into the Arab world. So admired were thesepieces that they encouraged the development of earthenware made in imitation ofporcelain and instigated research into the method of their manufacture. Fromthe Middle East the Chinese acquired a blue pigment—a purified form of cobaltoxide unobtainable at that time in China—that contained only a low level ofmanganese. Cobalt ores found in China have a high manganese content, whichproduces a more muted blue-gray color. In the seventeenth century, the tradingactivities of the Dutch East India Company resulted in vast quantities ofdecorated Chinese porcelain being brought to Europe, which stimulated andinfluenced the work of a wide variety of wares, notably Delft. The Chinesethemselves adapted many specific vessel forms from the West, such as bottleswith long spouts, and designed a range of decorative patterns especially forthe European market.

Just as painted designs on Greek pots mayseem today to be purely decorative, whereas in fact they were carefully andprecisely worked out so that at the time, their meaning was clear, so it iswith Chinese pots. To twentieth-centuryeyes, Chinese pottery may appear merely decorative, yet to the Chinese the formof each object and its adornment had meaning and significance. The dragonrepresented the emperor, and the phoenix, the empress; the pomegranateindicated fertility, and a pair of fish, happiness; mandarin ducks stood forwedded bliss; the pine tree, peach, and crane are emblems of long life; and fishleaping from waves indicated success in the civil service examinations. Onlywhen European decorative themes were introduced did these meanings becomeobscured or even lost.

From early times pots were used in bothreligious and secular contexts. The imperial court commissioned work and in theYuan dynasty (. 1279-1368) an imperial ceramic factory was established atJingdezhen. Pots played an important part in some religious ceremonies. Longand often lyrical descriptions of the different types of ware exist that assistin classifying pots, although these sometimes confuse an already large andcomplicated picture.

托福阅读试题

1. The word “status” in thepassage(Paragraph 2)is closest in meaning to

B. importance

to paragraph 2, which of thefollowing is true of Chinese ceramics?

A. The function of ceramics remained thesame from dynasty to dynasty.

use of ceramics as trade objects isbetter documented than the use of ceramics as ritual objects.

C. There was little variation in qualityfor any type of ceramics over time.

religious sculptures were made usingthe earthenware type of ceramics.

word “evolve” in the passage(Paragraph3)is closest in meaning to

A. divided

D. vanished

of the sentences below bestexpresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence(Paragraph 3) inthe passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leaveout essential information.

stone wares and porcelains arefound throughout most historical periods, religious sculpture is limited to theancient period.

sculpture was created in mostperiods, but its history is less clear than that of stone wares or porcelainsbecause some old forms continued to be used even when new ones were developed.

stone wares and porcelains changedthroughout history, religious sculpture remained uniform in form and use.

historical development of religioussculpture is relatively unclear because religious sculptures sometimes resembleearthenware architectural ornaments.

3 supports all of the followingconcerning the history of the ceramic industry in China EXCEPT:

earliest high-fired ceramics were ofpoor quality.

B. Ceramics produced during the Tang andMing dynasties sometimes incorporated multiple colors.

Earthenware ceramics were produced in Chinabefore stone wares were.

Song dynasty period was notable forthe production of high quality porcelain ceramics.

word “instigate” in thepassage(Paragraph 4)is closest in meaning to

C. narrowed

to paragraph 4, one consequenceof the trade of Chinese ceramics was

A. the transfer of a distinctive bluepigment from China to the Middle East

immediate change from earthenwareproduction to porcelain production in European countries

production of wares made for theEuropean market

decreased number of porcelain vesselsavailable on the European market

word “whereas” in thepassage(Paragraph 5)is closest in meaning to

A. while

B. previously

paragraph 5, the author compares thedesigns on Chinese pots to those on Greek pots in order to

that while Chinese pots weredecorative, Greek pots were functional

that the designs on Chinese potshad specific meanings and were not just decorative

that twentieth-century scholars arebetter able to understand these designs than were ancient scholars

how scholars have identified themeaning of specific images on Chinese pots

of the following is mentioned inparagraph 5 as being symbolically represented on Chinese ceramics?

rulers

B. love of homeland

C. loyally to friends

D. success in trade

5 suggests which of thefollowing about the decorations on Chinese pottery?

had more importance for aristocratsthan for ordinary citizens.

significance may have remainedclear had the Chinese not come under foreign influence.

contain some of the same images thatappear on Greek pots

significance is now as clear totwentieth century observers as it was to the early Chinese.

word “these” in the passage(Paragraph6)refers to

ceremonies

B. descriptions

of ware

13. Look at the four squares [■]thatindicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Wherecould the sentence best fit? Foreign trade was also responsible for certaininnovations in coloring.

Trade between the West and the settled andprosperous Chinese dynasties introduced new forms and different of the most far-reaching examples is the impact of the fine ninth-centuryAD. Chinese porcelain wares imported into the Arab world. ■【A】So admiredwere these pieces that they encouraged the development of earthenware made inimitation of porcelain and instigated research into the method of theirmanufacture. ■【B】From the Middle East the Chinese acquired a blue pigment—a purifiedform of cobalt oxide unobtainable at that time in China—thatcontained only a low level of manganese. Cobalt ores found in China have a highmanganese content, which produces a more muted blue-gray color. ■【C】In theseventeenth century, the trading activities of the Dutch East India Companyresulted in vast quantities of decorated Chinese porcelain being brought toEurope, which stimulated and influenced the work of a wide variety of wares,notably Delft. ■【D】The Chinese themselves adapted many specific vessel forms from theWest, such as bottles with long spouts, and designed a range of decorativepatterns especially for the European market.

14. Directions: An introductory sentencefor a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary byselecting the THREE answer that express the most important ideas in thepassage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideasthat not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. Thisquestion is worth 2 points.

Ceramics have been produced in China for avery long time.

Chinese produced earthenware,stoneware, and porcelain pottery and they used their ceramics for a variety ofutilitarian, architectural, and ceremonial purposes.

B. The shape and decoration of ceramicsproduced for religious use in China were influenced by Chinese ceramicsproduced for export.

a result of trade relations, Chineseceramic production changed and Chinese influenced the ceramics production ofother countries.

D. Chinese burial ceramics have the longestand most varied history of production and were frequently decorated withwritten texts that help scholars date them.

China had contact with the West,the meaning of various designs used to decorate Chinese ceramics was wellunderstood.

made in imperial factories wereused in both religious and non-religious contexts.

托福 阅读答案

状态，地位，所以B的importance重要性，地位正确。原句说瓷器的作用和什么因朝代而不同，而且之后有解释可能是实用的，用于埋葬的，或者blabla，所以importance能对上。origin起源不可能因为朝代而变化;quality后面有，不应该重复;design与后文的例子对不上

2.问题中的关键词不能用，所以排除法最好。A的dynasty todynasty做关键词定位至第一句，说反，错;B的trade objects和ritual objects做关键词定位至第一句，原文没有比较，错;C的quality做关键词定位至第一句，说根据它们质量决定用来干嘛，所以质量是有变化的，C错;D的religious和earthenware做关键词定位至最后一句，正确

进化，演化，所以C的develop正确。原文说七到十世纪的白瓷怎么样成了宋代的很好的瓷，无论从时间上还是后面说的highly prized都证明后面的比前面的好，所以应该是变好的意思，A分开B延伸D消失都没有变好之意

4.原文的主要关系是因果，因果的结果部分包含了一个转折，所以从结构上说只有B和D可能正确。B正确，D错在原文说stoneware和porcelain比religious sculpture清楚，但没说religious sculpture不清楚，错

题，排除法。A的high-firedceramics做关键词定位至第二句，原文说good quality, 备选项说poor，反了，错，选;B的Tang and Ming Dynasty做关键词定位至最后一句，正确，不选;C的earthenware和stoneware做关键词定位至第一句，原文说最早的是earthenware，所以比stoneware早，所以C正确，不选;D的Song dynasty做关键词定位至第三句，正确，不选

教唆，鼓动，煽动，所以cause引起正确，注意不要被investigate迷惑。原句说那些陶器非常惹人喜爱，促进了earthenware的发展，也instigate了制陶 方法 的研究，instigate与原文的encourage并列，所以应该是鼓励之意。A提升改善B调查C变窄均不正确

7.以trade of Chineseceramics做关键词定位至倒数第二句，问结果，所以应该关注result in之后的内容，说大量的Chinese porcelain到了欧洲，影响了一系列ware，接着又说会专门为欧洲市场做一些ware，所以C正确;注意B尽管说到了change，但immediate是原文没说的;A没说;D说反了，应该是增加

8.注意 句子 中的seem和in fact，seem叫做看上去，也就是事实很可能不是这样，后面的in fact叫做事实上，也就是说前面说的很可能不是事实，两者呼应，都说明两句话之间的关系是转折，所以while正确

9.先看本句，现代人认为希腊的pots上的design只是装饰，没有实际意义，但事实上是有意义的，中国的pots也这样，所以B正确。A错，不是pots decorative，而是design;C说反，D没说方式，所以how错

10.问下面哪个是design的替代意义，倒数第二句整个都在说pots上design的意义，提到了emperor和empress，皇帝和皇后，所以A的Chinese rulers正确，统治者;其他都没说

11.问题中关键词不明显，排除法。A的ordinarycitizens和aristocrat原文没说;B的foreign influence做关键词定位至最后一句的European，说直到引入欧洲theme之后中国原有的装饰的意思才被obscure，对应B，没有foreign influence那些意思不会改变，正确;C没说;D反了，应该是ancient更熟悉

往前找，找主语。注意从句子一开始到exist之前都是句子的主语，但of之前的东西是整个句子的核心，所以答案是description，对于什么什么的描述，描述才是核心，不是types of ware

13.两个过渡点，名词foreign trade和coloring。foreigntrade对应原文第四句的from Middle East Chinese acquired blabla和倒数第二句的tradingactivities，所以B/C/D都有可能;coloring证明B或者C正确。按照正常逻辑，应该先总括，说外贸也使染色技术发生变化，接着再说怎么变的，所以B正确，C错误

Chinese选项对应第二段第二句，正确

The shape选项原文没说，不选

As选项对应原文第四段第一句，正确

Chinese选项原文没说，不选

Before选项对应原文第五段最后一句，正确

Ceramics选项MS对应原文最后一段，但最后一段没说imperial陶瓷是用于both情况的，也不选

托福阅读译文

【1】尽管中国曾饱受入侵，偶尔丧失主权受制于外国，她仍然拥有世界上最源远流长的文明。像中国一个拥有悠久文明的大国，而陶瓷在其复杂的社会历史以及视觉历史中扮演了极为重要的角色。

【2】在中国，每一个朝代陶瓷的功能和地位都是不同的，所以，根据它们的质量和制作年代的不同，可以是实用器物、陪葬品、贸易 收藏 品，甚至是礼器。对于容器、瓦片等建筑材料、模仿的物体或人物，陶瓷广义上被分为3大类：陶器、炻器和瓷器。另外，瓷器中还有很重要的一类就是宗教用途的雕塑，它们多数是陶质的。

【3】尽管最早的陶瓷是在制陶的温度下烧制的，但是早在公元前15世纪，就已经出现了上釉的高温炻器。六朝时期(公元265-589年)，中国北方就有窑炉在烧制优质的高温瓷器。从7世纪到10世纪，河北以及河南省产的白瓷逐渐演变成为享有盛名的宋瓷(公元960-1279年)——长久以来被认为是中国陶瓷业历史中的巅峰时期之一。宗教雕塑的传统在大部分历史时期中都有延续，但是没有炻器和瓷器质地的雕塑描绘的那么清晰，有一种古老的习俗，就是将刻着新的宗教形象和建筑装饰的陶器作为陪葬品。瓷制品还包括汉朝的铅釉随葬陶俑，唐朝的三彩铅釉器皿和人物，明朝的以泥釉凸纹展现轮廓的三彩寺庙装饰物以及很多用来仿制贵重器皿的陪葬瓷器。

【4】西方国家和繁荣稳定的历代中国朝代之间的贸易促使双方互相引入了新的形式和不同的技术。有一个意义最为深远的例子，公元9世纪精美中国瓷器出口到阿拉伯世界，带来巨大的影响。阿拉伯人对这些瓷器赞不绝口，于是他们鼓励制陶来仿制瓷器，并激励人们研究制作方法。中国人从中东获得了一种蓝色颜料——一种纯化的氧化钴，当时在中国并未出现，其中只含有少量的锰。中国境内发现的钴矿石含有大量的会产生暗蓝灰色的锰元素。17世纪，大量中国装饰类瓷器通过荷兰东印度公司的交易活动流入欧洲，这刺激和影响了广泛多样的瓷器的生产，特别是代尔夫特 。中国人自己改良了很多种来自西方的特殊器皿，比如长嘴的瓶子，并专门为欧洲市场设计了一系列装饰性图案。

【5】就像希腊的陶器上所绘的图案，今天看来也许纯粹是为了装饰，然而事实上在当时它们都是人们精心烧制而成的，它们的意义在当时非常明确，中国的瓷器也是如此。以20世纪的眼光来看，中国制造的陶瓷也许仅仅是装饰品，但是对于中国人来说每个物件的形状及它的装饰都有寓意非凡，影响深远。龙代表皇帝，凤代表皇后;石榴意味着多子，双鱼意味着幸福;鸳鸯寓意着婚姻幸福美满;松树、桃树以及鹤都是长寿的象征;鱼跃出水面意味着科举考试会高中。但是欧洲的装饰主题被引进后，这些寓意就变得不再那么流行甚至丢失了。

【6】陶瓷器皿在很早期就已用于宗教和日常生活中。朝廷分派了制作工作，并于元朝(公元1279-1368年)在景德镇设立了一座官窑。陶瓷器皿在一些宗教仪式上也有着重要的地位。现存的关于不同类型的陶瓷器具很多长篇且抒情的描述可以帮助我们对其进行分类，尽管这些描述有时候会使得一幅大而复杂的画面显得凌乱。

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