纯洁的毛灾灾
我国在环境问题上的后发优势和制约因素 在我国走向工业化、城市化的进程当中，环境问题日益成为必须面对的挑战之一。发达国家在发展过程中曾经遇到环境恶化的情况在中国初露端倪，在某些地区情况已相当严重，影响了人民群众的生活质量和身体健康，也危害了当地可持续发展的能力。国家有关部门也适时提出了绿色GDP的概念，要求各地政府树立科学的发展观，实现经济、环境、社会的协调发展，努力摆脱目前粗放的经济增长模式，走新型工业道路。那么，我们如何才能避免重蹈“先污染，后治理”的覆辙，我国有那些可利用的优势，制约因素又有那些呢？ 相比欧美这些国家曾经走过的老路来讲，我国在进行工业化的过程中，具有后发优势。所谓的后发优势就是我们可以依靠引进和模仿先进技术来快速实现技术的升级。这种模式在日本、韩国、新加坡等国已被证明行之有效，我国目前也在进行当中。后发优势不仅仅在经济领域适用，在环境保护领域也同样的有效。当然，具体的细节又有所不同，可以分为四条列举如下： (一)工业化和城市化过程中将会产生的环境问题已在西方国家和新兴工业国中反复出现，其产生的原因，导致的问题，解决的措施等方面的理论和实践已相当成熟。也就是说发达国家已经充当了“实验厂”，我们无须再走同样的弯路。比如美国洛杉矶的光化学烟雾，1943年7月首次出现，1950年才发现污染的元凶是臭氧，到70年代初才找到有力的措施使臭氧浓度开始下降①。对于先行者而言这是一个漫长而艰难的探索过程，但对于后来者却可以直接拿来应用了，甚至可以未雨绸缪，防患未然，避免类似情况的重演。 (二)发达国家控制和治理污染的技术已较为成熟，中国可以直接引进和模仿这些技术，在一个较高的起点上进行工业化，不必重复工业化国家早期那种浓烟滚滚、污水横流的景象。比如我国在冶金、化工等能耗高、污染重的行业时，无论是引进成套设备还是自行开发，在清洁生产方面和欧美工业化早期时的技术水准已不可同日而语。并且随着信息技术的飞速发展，推广和应用这些技术来取代传统的生产、工作模式，用信息化带动工业化，是展现在我们面前的大好机会。不仅可以实现快速缩小技术差距，而且可以用较短的时间，消耗较少的能源、材料实现从农业国向工业国的跨越，减少对环境的破坏。 (三)欧美国家为保护环境已经制订出了一整套较为完备的法律、法规体系，也建立了与之相配套的环境质量标准，我国可以参照他们的经验和做法，结合自己的实际情况制订环境保护法律。需要强调的是，欧美的这些法律是他们在市场经济条件下，为了应对因为市场失灵而导致的环境问题而制订的。这对于我国目前正在进行的完善市场经济体制，依靠法律而不是行政手段来规范经济运行，减少环境代价具有重要的参考价值。当然，我国已经制订一系列的旨在保护环境的法律，比如1989年颁布《中华人民共和国环境保护法》，1996年颁布《环境躁声污染防治法》，以及1984年颁布，1996年修改的《水污染保护法》，2002年颁布《环境影响评价法》，还有关于固体废物污染，海洋环境污染，放射性污染和保护自然资源的各项法律及与其配套的环境标准等，应该讲已经比较全面了。但是随着经济制度的转轨，技术水平的发展和立法工作更加科学，这些在不同时期，不同情况下制订的法律、标准也会逐步地得到修订、完善，更好地发挥作用。 (四)随着中国快速的融入世界经济体系当中，中国在各个方面愈来愈受到其它国家，尤其是发达国家的影响，环境问题也毫不例外。特别是我国大力发展外向型经济，出口已经成为拉动经济增长的三驾马车之一，中国的环境标准已经不能仅仅依据自己的实际情况进行制订，必然要受到国外的影响，或者说是压力。如果说前面谈到的几点是我们主动进行的话，这一条则是被动的，但它同样可以促使我们环境保护工作的进行。比如中国向日本出口的蔬菜，向欧盟出口的蜂蜜都因为对方严格的食品安全标准而受到拒绝。国内生产者为了出口只有遵守对方的标准，这种被迫采用的生产方式也会为我国的食品生产提供一种模式，为我国的食品安全提供帮助。另外，对外交往的扩大也推动了环境保护的进行。例如北京为了申办2008年奥运会，针对北京环境问题提出了‘绿色奥运’的口号，制定一系列的治理污染的措施：从城区迁出污染严重的企业;优化城市能源结构;建立污水处理厂;防治机动车排气污染物污染等②。奥运会的申办显然在客观上促进了北京环境的改善。 但是，尽管中国在环境保护方面具有后发优势，并不说明中国必然地能够避免环境恶化的问题。因为每个国家的工业化有先有后，每个后来者都可借鉴先行者的经验，但是却几乎都遇到了环境问题。比如日本就是一个典型的后来居上的发达国家，以善于学习和借鉴著称，二战后在日本就出现了水俣病、骨痛病、米糠油事件等环境事故。日本最大的淡水湖琵琶湖也没能摆脱被严重污染的命运，花费了巨额资金治理，水质至今还没有根本好转。墨西哥、泰国等新兴工业化国家也付出了巨大的环境代价，墨西哥城和曼谷都是世界上污染最严重的城市之一。这里面既有因为政策措施的不力，也有各自实际的困难，有制约的因素。就中国来讲，有其它国家面临的共同问题，又有自己的特殊情况，现总结如下： (一)清洁生产、循环经济所要求的先进技术和落后的社会现实的矛盾。清洁生产和循环经济是在满足人们物质需求的同时避免环境污染的有效方式，这在发达国家已经逐步成为现实。但是在我国现阶段却很难实现。 清洁生产所要求的设备往往价格昂贵、技术含量高，这是我国目前的经济实力和技术水平所无法满足的。我国目前最具活力，发展最快的私营经济大多规模较小、资金不足、员工的文化素质较低、熟练工的数量少。要么是无力引进先进的设备，要么是引进设备后没有人会操作，大多数企业还处于较为原始的状态。国营企业的技术、资金条件相对较好，发展时间也较长，但是多数也处于粗放、落后的阶段。以前曾寄予厚望的外企，只是将中国作为廉价劳动力的供给地和销售产品的市场，采用的多为在国外淘汰和转移的工艺，在保护环境方面并不令人满意。 循环经济要求社会经济活动以“减量、再用、循环”（3R）为行为的准则，不仅需要技术的先进，而且对于管理、法规和人们的生活习惯等都提出了较高的要求。目前我们的发展水平和这些标准还有相当的距离。比如废旧电池的回收是一件意义重大，代价并不高的事情，在国内的推广却不如人意。说明环境保护不仅仅有技术的制约，还受到一个社会文明程度的影响。 (二)沉重的环境压力和大量的适龄人口需要就业的矛盾。我国目前就业压力非常突出，尤其是农村具有大量的富余劳动力。从大多数国家走过的发展历程来看他们都要转移到城市。 农村人口转向城市从环保角度来看将会减少对于农村地区自然生态的破坏，同时城市化是节约利用资源的有效途径。因为城市中大量集中的人口使得土地、交通及公用设施的利用效率很高，如果说企业的生产规模越大，成本就越低的话，城市也具有这种规模效益，它的规模越大，资源的有效利用率也越高，越能为更多的人提供就业机会。但是这种规模效益的发挥也要求有完备的配套措施，如方便的交通，清洁的饮用水，能够对污水和垃圾进行处理等，而这些正是一个落后地区所缺乏的。许多发展中国家快速城市化的背后，是大量失业的城市贫民，生存条件恶劣的居民区，这种环境状况不仅损害人民健康，而且对于社会的稳定也构成威胁。 随着我国经济的发展，户口制度的逐步宽松，城市化的速度将会加快，许多发展中国家面临的问题在我国已逐步成为现实。在城市化所带来的各种环境问题中，最重要的水的问题。我国是世界少有的人均水量不足的国家，尤其是华北、西北地区。但是，很多城市并没有污水处理厂，尤其是中小城市。有的城市虽然建有污水处理厂，由于缺乏资金，无法投用，形同虚设。因此，水短缺和水污染这两个问题的共同作用，使缺水的地区雪上加霜，城市的可持续发展面临威胁。这就使依靠城市化来解决就业的途径面临瓶颈约束。 (三)减少污染物排放和我国现阶段工业化进程的矛盾。和已开始走向重化工业时代，能源和原材料的增长速度要等于甚至大于经济增长的速度，这使得中国的环境在今后二十年左右将要面临严峻的考验。 在过去的二十多年里，中国经济的发展主要表现在和人民日常生活密切相关的轻工业，这些行业对于环境的影响相对要小一些，中国在实现经济翻两番的同时能源消费只增加了一倍。尽管这样，由于庞大的人口数量和人们快速改善居住条件的关系，2003年全国耗费了16亿吨的煤，3亿吨铁矿石，2.46亿吨钢材，1178万吨氧化铝，8.5亿吨水泥。分别为世界消费总量的31%，30%，27%，25%和40%，这些比例已经超过了中国人口在世界中的比重，并且这些数字还在快速的增长。由于消费量的增长，污染物的排放也快速增长，2003年全国主要污染物排放总量中二氧化硫增长了12%，烟尘增长了5%，粉尘增长了8%③。当然，随着技术的提高，污染物的排放总量在达到一个峰值后将会开始减少，但是这个过程将需要较长的时间，代价会很大。 我国的能源结构也是污染严重的原因之一。我国能源消费中煤的比重过高，一直在70%上下。和石油、天然气相比，无论是开采、运输还是消费阶段，煤的污染都要大的多。但是，我国石油和天然气的储量不足，无法满足国内需求，现阶段更无法取代煤的地位。新型能源如太阳能、风能还处于起步阶段，核能只是有限度的开发。伴随着重工业化的到来，我国的环境将因为能源结构的原因面临更大的压力。 (四)增长的粮食需求和耕地的超负荷的矛盾。粮食问题一直是政府的头等大事，我国改革的第一阶段就是解决了人民群众的温饱问题。随着人民生活水准的提高，膳食结构的调整，人均消耗的粮食还会继续增长下去。但是，我国极为有限的耕地面积，加上因为工业和城市发展将要占用的土地，使得我们提供粮食的增长潜力有限。 >美国世界观察研究所所长，莱斯特•布郎(Lester Brown)的《谁来养活中国》（Who will feed China）一文曾引起了强烈反响。我们以占世界7%的土地，养活了22%的人口，但是我们目前的粮食自给率是以巨大的环境代价换来的：湖泊缩小、湿地消失、水土流失严重、土壤质量退化。适度的进口粮食，减少国内土地压力，是一个可行的办法。但粮食是一种特殊的商品，即便布朗教授的预言不会出现，国际市场能提供足够的粮食，出于安全考虑，我们也不能过分依赖国外市场。 >因此，在人们的粮食需求增长，工业、城市、道路等的发展又将使可耕地的面积进一步减少的情况下，如何确定合适的进口比例，在实现粮食战略安全的同时，使国内的环境减少压力，避免再出现毁林开荒，保证退耕还林政策的落实，是一项需要智慧和远见的课题。 (五)日益自由的经济政策和政府的有效监管的矛盾。从计划经济向市场经济转轨的过程中，因相应法律、政策不能及时转变以及监管部门的腐败导致企业缺少有效监管而出现环境污染。 经济学家将环境污染产生的原因称为市场失灵，就是市场这只看不见的手在优化配置资源时，对于那些不需要花费金钱，却同样非常宝贵的公共资源如空气、水等无法进行有效配置。企业在不受到监管的时候，它为了自身利益的最大化，往往要损害公共资源，使整个社会为这些企业付出代价。 这时，就需要依靠法律手段来约束企业的行为。从发达国家的经验来看这是一种非常有效的手段。但是，在我国由于历史的原因，大家的法律意识比较淡漠，尽管制定关于保护自然环境和自然资源的大量法规，但其作用较为有限。这里面既有政府部门为了解决就业和财政收入问题，对于某些企业污染环境的行为视而不见、姑息纵容的地方保护主义；也有部分企业不遵从环保法规，偷偷摸摸地私排乱放；更有企业和监管部门的部分人员勾结，为了一己之私利，置人民长远利益而不顾，使法律无法收到实效。 虽然在上面只列出了五条影响环境的因素，但是环境的状况是社会、经济、政策、技术共同作用的结果，这些因素也是互相影响的。我们所追求的是经济和环境的协调发展，如果在取得物质财富的同时过度损害赖以生存的环境，就是本末倒置了。2003年末重庆开县的井喷事故和2004年初四川沱江的污染事故，从历史上看都是非常严重的。这为我们敲响了警钟，说明了工业的发展总要带来副产品的，无论是在东方还是西方。 我国为了在发展经济的同时有效的保护环境，依据自己的实际情况提出了走新型工业化道路的目标，这是一个充满远见的举措。如果这个远大目标能够实现，将是人类发展史上的奇迹，因为它不仅会使中国人受益，也将惠及全世界。但是，从提出目标到成为现实，需要环境保护部门的专家、学者的劳动，以及各个行业的共同努力。我们既要明白自己的优势，更要明白制约的因素，只有我们拥有比别人更加开阔的视野、更加睿智的目光，进行更加艰辛的探索和奋斗，才能解决存在的问题，实现这个目标。
微微姐22
只有试卷，我也在找答案。 I. Read the following unfinished statements or questions carefully. For each unfinished statement or question, four suggested answers marked A, B, C and D are given. Choose the one that you think best completes the statement or answers the question. Write the letter of the answer you have chosen in the corresponding space on the answer sheet. (50 points, 1 point for each) 1. Strictly speaking, “the British Isles” refers to_______. A. Great Britain B. Ireland C. the United Kingdom D. Great Britain and Ireland 2. Which of the following kings was responsible for the complete establishment of the feudal system in England? A. Edward I B. Henry II C. Alfred the Great D. William the Conqueror 3. The spirit of the Great Charter was ______. A. a limitation of the powers of the king B. a guarantee of the freedom of the serfs C. a limitation of the powers of the Church D. a declaration of equality among all people 4. Which of the following is NOT true about the result of the Black Death? A. Much land was left untended. B. There was a terrible shortage of labour. C. The surviving peasants had lost their power of bargaining. D. Landowners tended to change from arable to sheep-farming. 5. The War of Roses that took place from 1455 to 1485 was fought between ______. A. Britain and France B. the Parliament and the Crown C. the working people and the aristocrats D. two branches of the Plantagenet family 6. The English Renaissance was largely literary, and it achieved its finest expression in the so-called ______. A. Romantic poetry B. Romantic fiction C. Elizabethan poetry D. Elizabethan drama 7. British constitutional monarchy is a system under which the powers of the ______ are limited by Parliament or the constitution. A. church B. king or queen C. government ministers D. Bishop’s court 8. The Tories in Britain were the forerunners of ______, which still bears this nickname today. A. the Labor Party B. the Liberal Party C. the Conservative Party D. the Social Democratic Party 9. Which of the following was NOT included in the six-point demand of the Chartist Movement? A. Equal electoral districts B. Voting by secret ballot C. The vote for all adult males D. The vote for all adult females 10. During the First World War, Britain was allied with ______. A. Turkey B. the Central Powers C. France and Russia D. Germany and Austria-Hungary 11. Who was the man that led Britain in the crisis of the Second World War? A. George VI B. Theodore Roosevelt C. Neville Chamberlain D. Sir Winston Churchill 12. The new policies adopted by Mrs. Thatcher and Conservative Government after the 1979 election was known as ______. A. Thatcherism B. the New Deal C. New Frontier D. Keynesianism 13. Over the past one thousand years, the British ______ has been broken only once between 1649 and 1660. A. Cabinet B. Parliament C. Monarchy D. Privy Council 14. Who has the power to appoint the Prime Minister in Britain? A. The Queen B. The Parliament C. The House of Lords D. The Church of England 15. In Britain, a full meeting of ______ is called only when a Sovereign dies or announces his or her intention to marry. A. the Privy Council B. the Parliament C. the House of Commons D. the House of Lords 16. Which of the following is NOT involved in the British judicial responsibilities? A. Attorney General B. Ministry of Justice C. The Lord Chancellor D. The Home Secretary 17. Bank holidays in Britain refer to ______. A. official public holidays B. holidays for the banks only C. public holidays except for the banks D. holidays for the financial institutions only 18. Which statement about the British universities is NOT true? A. They enjoy academic freedom. B. They cannot appoint their own staff. C. They are governed by royal charters. D. They provide their own courses and award their own degrees. 19. ______, the most popular sport in England as well as in Europe, has its traditional home in England where it was developed in the 19th century. A. Basketball B. Tennis C. Football D. Baseball 20. London’s Metropolitan Police Force is directly under the control of _______. A. the Prime Minister B. the Lord Chancellor C. the Home Secretary D. the Attorney General 21. Which statement about the Puritans is NOT true? A. The Puritans did not allow religious dissent. B. The Puritans were poor artisans and unskilled peasants. C. They were dissatisfied with the political corruption in England. D. They went to the United States to establish what they considered the true church. 22. The largest racial and ethnic minority in the U.S. is the ______, which accounts over 12.1% of the population. A. blacks B. Asians C. Indians D. Hispanics 23. The three well-known authors who penned the Federalist Papers are ______. A. Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and John Jay B. George Washington, James Madison and John Jay C. Alexander Hamilton, James Madison and John Jay D. Alexander Hamilton, James Madison and John Adams 24. When Abraham Lincoln was elected president, the southern states broke away and formed a new nation called ______. A. the Southern States of America B. the Federalist States of America C. the Confederate States of America D. the Anti-confederate States of America 25. With the development of industry and extension of railroad network in the early 20th century in the U.S.A., there appeared ______. A. a rapid growth of cities B. an influx of foreign goods C. an increase of urban ghettos D. a great increase in the number of farms 26. In the early 19th century, ______ actively used the Sherman Antitrust Act to stop monopolistic business mergers in the United States. A. J.P. Morgan B. Woodrow Wilson C. Henry Rockefeller D. Theodore Roosevelt 27. The Red Scare in 1919 and 1920 was a typical example of American ______. A. religious intolerance B. intolerant nationalism C. Progressive Movement D. deregulation of big trusts 28. In the early 1930s, the American foreign policy was isolationist, but the ______ suddenly changed the whole situation, which propelled the U.S. into the Second World War. A. Pearl Harbor attack B. bombing of Guam island C. seizing of American merchant ships D. sinking of American passenger ships 29. In 1962, President ______ finally decided on the use of naval force to prevent military material and arms from entering Cuba and demanded Soviet removal of the missiles there. A. Nixon B. Truman C. Johnson D. Kennedy 30. In 1853, in the ______, another 30,000 square miles of Mexican land were added to the territory of the U.S.A. A. Atlantic Purchase B. Mexican Purchase C. Gadsden Purchase D. Louisiana Purchase 31. The four problems that face the economy of the United States are______. A. unemployment, inflation, financial crisis and trade deficit B. unemployment, inflation, financial deficit and trade deficit C. mortgage losses, inflation, financial deficit and trade deficit D. unemployment, market failures, financial deficit and trade deficit 32. Which statement about the U.S. Constitution is NOT true? A. It is the supreme law of the land. B. It is the oldest written constitution in the world. C. It was adopted in 1781 at the Second Continental Congress. D. It provides the basis for political stability, economic growth and social progress. 33. The American President usually takes an oath of office, administered by the ______ of the United States in January. A. Chief Justice B. House Speaker C. Secretary of State D. Senate Majority Leader 34. The U.S. Constitution provides that the ______ shall be President of the Senate. A. Vice President B. Secretary of State C. Senate Majority Leader D. Senate Minority Leader 35. Which one of the following is NOT government-run at the U.S. federal level? A. Motor vehicle B. The road system C. National defense D. The postal service 36. It is generally agreed that U.S. higher education began with the______. A. Civil War B. Independence War C. founding of Harvard College D. founding of Princeton University 37. Formal education in the United States consists of ______. A. kindergarten, junior and senior education B. junior, elementary and secondary education C. elementary, secondary and higher education D. kindergarten, secondary and higher education 38. In his Old Man and the Sea, Ernest Hemingway ______. A. expresses the idea of facing defeat courageously B. shows the basic goodness and wisdom of ordinary people C. praises the ideas of equality and democracy and the joy of common people D. describes the sharp contrast of wealth and poverty in Chicago and New York 39. In the early part of the 19th century, ______ was the center of American writing. A. Boston B. Detroit C. New York City D. Philadelphia 40. The most important patriotic holiday in the U.S. is ______. A. Halloween B. Veterans’ Day C. Thanksgiving Day D. Independence Day 41. The capital city of Ireland is ______. A. Cork B. Dublin C. Galway D. Waterford 42. Historically, Ireland has been free of ethnic conflicts because of its ______. A. racial unity B. racial homogeneity C. multi-culturalism D. high rate of emigration 43. Ireland has the following demographic features EXCEPT ______. A. a late marriage age B. an excess of females in the population C. a high proportion of bachelors and spinsters of all ages D. a low birthrate compounded by a century of emigration 44. Which of the following is a typical bilingual city in Canada? A. Ottawa B. Calgary C. Toronto D. Vancouver 45. Which of the following statements about immigration in Canada is NOT true? A. It is estimated that one-third of Canadians were born in other countries. B. Immigration has always been an important source of its population growth. C. Immigration has played an important role in the development of its economy. D. in the past Britain and Western Europe were the principal sources of Canadian immigration. 46. In terms of land area, Canada is the ______ largest country in the world. A. second B. third C. fourth D. fifth 47. The head of state of Australia is ______. A. the Governor B. the President C. the Prime Minister D. the Queen of England 48. ______ is the only city on the western coast of Australia with a population of over one million. A. Perth B. Sydney C. Brisbane D. Melbourne 49. A ______, where two parts of the earth’s crust meet, runs the length of New Zealand. A. fault line B. built area C. dormant volcano D. geothermal area 50. The Treaty of Waitangi in 1840 was an agreement between ______. A. the Maori whalers and the British Crown B. the Maori people and the British missionaries C. the Maori traders and the British missionaries D. the chiefs of the Maori people and the British Crown II. Give a one-sentence answer to each of the following questions. Write your answer in the corresponding space on the answer sheet. (30 points, 3 points for each) 51. What are the main functions of the British Parliament? 52. What were the two countries Elizabeth I successfully played off against each other for nearly 30 years? 53. What was the outcome of the English Civil War? 54. What are the three main Christian festivals in the U.K.? 55. What were the three cornerstones of American postwar economic boom? 56. What was the most important document produced between China and the United States when President Nixon visited China in 1972? 57. What is the most central function of the U.S. Congress? 58. What are the two major parties that dominate American politics at the federal, state and local levels? 59. What are the two official languages used in Ireland? 60. Who are the native people living in Australia? III. Explain each of the following terms in English. Write your answer in the corresponding space on the answer sheet in around 40 words. (20 points, 5 points for each) 61. Open University 62. The Speaker (of the House of Commons in Britain) 63. Muckrakers 64. The stock market crash of 1929选择答案：1-10 DDACD DBCDC 11-20 DACAA BABCC 21-30 BACCA DBADC 31-40 BCAAA CCACD 41-50 BBBAA ADAAD你知道对不对啊，仅供参考，应该没太大出入，我对过了
文史类自考大专专业：汉语言文学、公共关系、秘书等。自考本科专业：新闻学、商务英语、广告学、英语、秘书学、汉语言文学等。理工类自考大专专业：汽车机械制造技术、数控
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