建筑英文文献翻译

Defend the change of thunder productWhen people know that the thunder is a kind of electricity phenomenon after, to the adoration of the thunder and lightning with fear for the gradual disappearance, and start with the taste of science come from new observation the natural phenomena of this magic, hope to make use of or control a thunder and lightning activity to bring benefit to mankind.More than 200 year agos Franklin led off on the technique to start a challenge toward the thunder and lightning, he invent of the lightning rod may be regarded as to at the earliest stage defend a thunder product and this product name almost has already been know by the all people today.In fact, Franklin while invent lightning rod is think metals lightning rod of point of turn on electricity a function can synthesize the electric charge in thunder cloud, make thunder cloud and the electric field of the earth be as low as the level that can't broke through air, avoided strike by lightning thus of occurrence, so the then lightning rod must request to be sharp.But afterwards study enunciation:The lightning rod is the occurrence of the unavoidable thunder of, the reason that it can prevent°from a thunder is because the Gao is towering to sign of the lightning rod changed atmosphere electric field, make thunder cloud of certain scope always turn on electricity toward the lightning rod, be also say lightning rod be just than it surroundings of other objects more easily connect Shan thunder and lightning, the lightning rod is strike by lightning medium but other objects be protect, this be the defend of lightning rod thunder principle.Further of the research express the connect of lightning rod Shan function almost have something to do with its height, but have nothing to do with its shape, be say that the lightning rod isn't necessarily sharp.Defend a thunder technique realm to know together as now this type of defend thunder device for connect a Shan machine. The widespread usage of electricity promoted to defend the development of thunder product and be a high pressure power grid to provide motive and illuminate for the thousand 10000, thunder and lightning also a great deal of bane high pressure lose to change to give or get an electric shock an equipments.The high pressure line installs Gao, be apart from long, cross geography complications, is strike by lightning easily medium.The protection scope shortage of the lightning rod with protect up to thousand power lines, so avoid thunder line as to protect high pressure line of new connect a Shan machine to emerge with the tide of the times.After the high pressure line acquire a protection, the hair linked with high pressure line, go together with electricity equipments to be still conduct electricity to press damage, people discover this is because"respond thunder" is play tricks.(Respond the thunder is to respond the metals conductor of neighborhood because of keeping shot thunder to turn on electricity in, respond the thunder can pass 2 kinds to differently respond way incursion conductor, one is an electrostatic induction:When the electric charge in thunder cloud accumulates to gather, neighborhood of the conductor will also respond up the contrary electric charge and be a thunder to turn on electricity, the electric charge in thunder cloud quickly releases, and the conductor Central plains come to is tie up by thunder cloud electric field of the static electricity will also follow conductor fluxion to look for to release passage, will become electricity pulse in the electric circuit.Two is an electromagnetic induction:When thunder cloud turn on electricity, the thunder and lightning of quick variety flows to around produce to strongly change in a sudden an electromagnetism field at it and produce very high feeling to living electromotive force in the conductor of its neighborhood.Study enunciation:The wave that the electrostatic induction method cause flows out the wave that the several cause at the electromagnetic induction to flow out.)The thunder and lightning is on-line to start to respond an electricity to flow out in the high pressure, and follow to lead line to spread with it connect with each other of hair, go together with electricity equipments, be these bear of equipmentses to press lower hour will be responded thunder to damage, for repress to lead line in of give or get an electric shock to flow out, people invented a circuit lightning arrester. The circuit lightning arrester in earlier period is a liberal air cleft.The air brokes through electric voltage very high, about the 500 kVs/m, but after it was broke through by the high electric voltage the low pressure of only several ten Fus.This characteristic people who make use of air designed the circuit lightning arrester in earlier period and lead 1 line of a carry connect on the power line, another lead line of on carrying to connect ground, 2 lead line of another a carry to be separated certain distance constitute air cleft of two electrodes, cleft distance made sure a broke through of lightning arrester electric voltage, broke through the electric voltage should be slightly high at the work electric voltage of power line, so be electric circuit to normally work, the air cleft is equal to open a new road, will not influence the normal work of circuit.While conducting electricity to press invade, the air cleft is broke through, conduct electricity to press quilt Qian to arrive very low level, conduct electricity to flow to also leak to put into the ground through an air cleft and carried out a lightning arrester to protect circuit.Open the cleft contains too many weakness, if broke through electric voltage is influence by environment greatly;Air's turn on electricity will oxidize electrode;Air electricity arc-shaped needs to through many communicate that the period then can extinguish Hu after become, this may result in the lightning arrester break down or the circuit break down.Hereafter developped the air of to turn on electricity a tube, tube type lightning arrester, Ci to blow a lightning arrester to to a large extent overcome these troubles, but they are still the principles that the establishments turn on electricity in the air up.The air turns on electricity the proper weakness of a lightning arrester:The impact brokes through electric voltage Gao;Postpone while turn on electricity longer(the μ s class);The remnants presses a form steep.(the dV/dt be more big)These protections ability that the weakness comes to a decision air to turn on electricity a lightning arrester an equipments to the sensitive electricity aren't strong. The semi-conductor technical development provided to defend the thunder new material for us, for example steady press a tube, it the Fu-Anne's characteristic match circuit to defend a thunder request, just it passes the ability that the thunder and lightning flow weak, make common of steady press a tube can't directly used to a lightning arrester.The valve type that the semi-conductor lightning arrester in earlier period is make into with carborundum material lightning arrester, it have with steady press the Fu-Anne's characteristic of the tube likeness, but pass the ability that the thunder and lightning flow very strong.However very quick people discovered metals oxide again the semi-conductor change Zu machine(MOV), it the Fu-Anne's characteristic be better, and have to respond to time quickly, flow to have great capacity etc. many advantages.Therefore, currently widespread adoption MOV circuit lightning arrester. Along with the development of correspondence, and then produced many lightning arresters which used for corresponding by letter circuit, because of being deliver by correspondence circuit the stipulations of parameter, this lightning arrester wants to consider that the influences, such as electric capacity and electricity feeling...etc. delivers the index signs of parameter.But it defends thunder principle and MOV basic consistent.A, connect Shan function to point a realization to connect the condition that the Shan function should have, include a form(lightning rod, avoid thunder to take and avoid a thunder net) of connect the Shan machine, bear to flow to bear the ability of press and connect Shan effect and build price and connect Shan machine and the esthetics unity of the building etc. in a row.B, reposition of redundant personnel influence the guide line log out to the reposition of redundant personnel effect of influence.Lead to log out of thick thin directly influence reposition of redundant personnel effect with amount, lead to log out to have another, each one leads to log out to pass of the thunder and lightning flow small, it responds scope small.The distance which leads to log out its mutually shouldn't be small at the provision in the norm.When the building is very high, lead to log out very long time, should in the building of the middle part's increment all presses wreath to lead by let up to log out of the electricity electric voltage decline.This not only can with the reposition of redundant personnel, and can also lower to counter-attack electric voltage.C, the balanced electric potential make each parts in the building all become an equal electric potential, then etc. electric potential.If the structure reinforcing bar in the building can link with various metals constitution and the metals pipelineses unify of conduct electricity a body, certainly will not produce different electric potential inside building, so can promise will not produce counter-attack and endanger contact electric voltage or stride electric voltage of Human body safety inside building, to keep the micro-electronics equipments of the pulse interference of the thunder and lightning electromagnetism from have also a very big advantage.The building of reinforced concrete structure most has a realization etc. the condition of the electric potential, because it all of the big parts of internal structure reinforcing bar is to naturally weld or colligation together.In order to satisfy a request of defend the thunder device, should there is destination connect Shan device and beam, plank, pillar and foundation to dependablely weld, colligation or take to connect together, in the meantime again various metals equipments and the metals pipeline with it weld or the card connect together, this makes the whole building become good etc. electric potential a body.D, shield the main purpose that the function shield is make inside building of correspondence equipments, computer, precise instrument and automatic control system don't need encounter thunder and lightning electromagnetism the bane of the pulse.These facilitieses in the building, not only will be subjected to electromagnetism interference while defending thunder device to connect Shan, and intelligent because of they sex Gao and bear to press level low, sometimes nearby thunderclap or connect Shan, will also be subjected to the influence that the electromagnetism of thunder and lightning wave radiate, even will also be subjected to from the electromagnetic wave for spread when other buildings connect Shan of influence.Therefore, we should as far as possible make use of the reinforcing bar in the reinforced concrete structure, namely the reinforcing bar in the plank, wall noodles, and beam, pillar of the building hinterland plank, crest, make it constitute a net cage of hexahedron, namely the cage type avoid a thunder net and carry out to shield thus.Because of the dissimilarity of structure structure, inside wall with the reinforcing bar in the building plank have Shu is airtight, when the reinforcing bar density isn't enough, design a person should press the density that the different demand of various equipments increases a mesh.Goodly shield to not only make etc.'s electric potential and reposition of redundant personnel's these two problems solve problems with the greatest ease, but also is also the most valid measure towards defendoofing thunder and lightning electromagnetism, pulse.In addition, building of whole shield can also defend ball thunder, side shot and round the raid of shot thunder.Five, connect the quality which connects a ground of effect of a ground of effect.Goodly connecting a ground of effect is goodlyalso one of important assurances which defends thunder success.Each building wants to consider which kind the effect which connects a place type had better with the most economic.King Xu the Sir think, when the building which is reinforced concrete structure matches a norm condition, should make use of reinforcing bar conduct and actions in the foundation to connect a ground of device.When condition or foundation coulded not reach to rule in the norm wrap in waterproof book material layer, can do for a week, the turn type connects a ground of device, but should week the turn type connect a ground of device in advance covers up in the foundation slot of outermost.(need not leave the building 3 ms outside)Connect a ground of body near the foundation inside of the reinforcing bar be advantageous to balanced electric potential, can also save in the meantime for dig the manpower and material resources that deep ditch cost.Dig again after the foundation complete work the deep ditch then easily influences a basal stability. Mix structure building to the wood structure and the brick, have to do independence to lead to log out and adopt independence to connect a place type.When soil electric resistance the rate be big, the usage connects ground very more, can also do a surroundings type to connect a ground of device.Because the week turn type connects a ground of impact resistance of device small in independently connect a ground of impact resistance of device, and be advantageous to the ground electric potential which improves inside building to distribute, let up stride electric voltage.Taking drilling a hole to deeply cover up effect of connect a ground of pole(about the 4~12 ms) as when adopt the independent type connects a place type had better, the deep bore connect a ground of water level with underground pole easy reach, and can reduce to connect use of a ground of pole amount of steel.E, the thunder and lightning wave invadeThunder and lightning wave the form which invade an intelligence building contains 2 kinds, 1 kind keeps shot thunder, another is to respond thunder.Generally speaking, the possibility which keeps the electronics equipments of intelligence building universe in the shot thunder is very small, usually need not install the equipments that the protection keeps shot thunder.Respond the thunder is flowed output strong electromagnetism field variety and conductor by the thunder lightning flash to respond a conduct electricity of to press and conduct electricity to flow a formation thunder.Respond the thunder invades electronics equipments and calculator system to mainly have the following three paths:(1)The ground electric potential of thunder and lightning counter-attacks electric voltage to pass to connect a ground of body to invade.(2)From communicate power supply power supply the circuit invade.(3)It is invade by the correspondence signal circuit.Ignore is to pass which form, which path invade, will make electronics equipments and calculator system be subjected to damage or serious interference of different degree. The intelligence mansion is generally and all a type of building, should build up comprehensive connect a ground of system, connect a ground of electric resistance to be no bigger than one Ω .Design in the building crest from avoid thunder to take, lightning rod or mixture constitute of connect a Shan machine, make use of steel pillar or sign the reinforcing bar in the pillar as to defend thunder to lead to log out, and and the foundation reinforcing bar of building, beam reinforcing bar, the metals frame conjunction gets up, become to shut to match good farad cage and construct inside the Shu toward the metals piping should each time all press of the 3 F and turn beam wreath connect with each other, all press wreath should with defend thunder device ad hoc lead to log out connect with each other.When building is more than 30 meters high, in response to 30 meters and the railing on above part of outside walls, the metals doors and windows wait a bigger metal direct or through metals doors and windows cover up an iron with defend thunder device a conjunction.The intelligence is various exchanges inside the mansion, the direct current equipments is numerous, the circuit maneuvers interleave, should exchanges work in the building ground, safe protection ground, direct current work ground, defend thunder to connect ground and the cage good conjunction of the building farad, become an etc. electric potential body, avoid connecting the existence potential difference of the of a ground of line, respond to conduct electricity reason of press the creation by cancellation.Thunder and lightning in order not to from communicate power supply power supply the circuit invade, can in the high pressure cabinet of go together with the electricity of the change of mansion of each mutually install the first degree protection of lightning arrester conduct and actions, install a valve door a type to defend thunder device as a second degree protection in the low-pressure cabinet, in order to prevent thunder and lightning irruptive go together with of mansion electricity system.For careful rise to see, can install power supply to avoid thunder box as in the power supply of each layer of mansion go together with the electricity box x-rated protection and will go together with an electricity box of the metals outer shell and defend of mansion thunder connect a ground of system credibility conjunction.The correspondence circuit in the intelligence mansion's have another is take by the comprehensive cloth line system.The comprehensive cloth line system constitutes to°from six statures systems:(1)The buildings sub- system.(2)Equipments sub- system.(3)Manage sub- system.(4)Perpendicular trunk line sub- system.(5)The level trunk line sub- system.(6)Work the area sub- system.Our underneath is once analytical to comprehensive the cloth line defend of system thunder protection.

Traditional Construction ProceduresAs mentioned before, construction under the traditional construction procedure is performed by contractors. While they would like to satisfy the owner and the building designers, contractors have the main objective of making a profit. Hence, their initial task is to prepare a bid price based on an accurate estimate of construction costs. This requires development of a concept for performance of the work and a construction time schedule. After a contract has been awarded, contractors must furnish and pay for all materials, equipment, power, labor, and supervision required for construction. The owner compensates the contractors for construction costs and services.A general contractor assumes overall responsibility for construction of a building. The contractor engages subcontractors who take responsibility for the work of the various trades required for construction. For example, a plumbing contractor installs the plumbing, an electrical contractor installs the electrical system, and an elevator contractor installs elevators. Their contracts are with the general contractor, and they are paid by the general contractor.Sometimes, in addition to a general contractor, the owner contracts separately with specialty contractors, such as electrical and mechanical contractors, who perform a substantial amount of the work require for a building. Such contractors are called prime contractors. Their work is scheduled and coordinated by the general contractor, but they are paid directly by the owner.Sometimes also, the owner may use the design-build method and award a contract to an organization for both the design and construction of a building. Such organizations are called design-build contractors. One variation of this type of contract is employed by developers of groups of one-family homes or low-rise apartment buildings. The homebuilder designs and constructs the dwellings, but the design is substantially completed before owners purchase the homes.Administration of the construction procedure often is difficult. Consequently, some owners seek assistance from an expert, called a professional construction manager, with extensive construction experience, who receives a fee. The construction manager negotiates with general contractors and helps select one to construct the building. Managers usually also supervise selection of subcontractors. During construction, they help control costs, expedite equipment and material deliveries, and keep the work on schedule. In some cases, instead, the owner may prefer o engage a construction program manager, to assist in administrating both design and construction.Construction contractors employ labor that may or may not be unionized. Unionized craftspeople are members of unions that are organized by construction trades, such as carpenter, plumber, and electrician unions, Union members will perform only the work assigned to their trade.During construction, all work should be inspected. For this purpose, the owner, often through the architect and consultants, engages inspectors. The field inspectors may be placed under the control of an owner’s representative, who may be titled clerk of the works, architect’s superintendent, engineer’s superintendent, or resident engineer. The inspectors have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meets the requirements of the contract documents and is performed under safe conditions. Such inspections may be made at frequent intervals.In addition, inspections also are made by representatives of one or more governmental agencies. They have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meets legal requirements and have little or no concern with detailed conformance with the contract documents. Such legal inspections are made periodically or at the end of certain stages of construction. One agency that will make frequent inspections is the local or state building department, whichever has jurisdiction. The purpose of these inspections is to ensure conformance with the local or state building code.Following is a description of the basic traditional construction procedure for a multistory building.After the award of a construction contract to a general contractor, the owner may ask the contractor to start a portion of the work before signing of the contract by giving the contractor a letter of intent or after signing of the contract by issuing a written notice to proceed. The contractor then obtains construction permits, as required, form governmental agencies, such as the local building, water, sewer, and highway departments.The general contractor plans and schedules construction operations in detail and mobilizes equipment and personnel for the project. Subcontractors are notified of the contract award and issued letters of intent or awarded subcontracts, then are given, at appropriate times, notices to proceed.Before construction starts, the general contractor orders a survey to be made of adjacent structures and terrain, both for the record and to become knowledgeable of local conditions. A survey is then made to lay out construction.Field offices for the contractor are erected on or near the site. If desirable for safety reasons to protect passersby, the required to be removed from the site are demolished and the debris is carted away.Next, the site is prepared to receive the building. This work may involve grading the top surface to bring it to the proper elevations, excavating to required depths for basement and foundations, and shifting of utility piping. For deep excavations, earth sides are braced and the bottom is drained.Major construction starts with the placement of foundations, on which the building rests. This is followed by the erection of load-bearing walls and structural framing. Depending on the height of the building, ladders, stairs, or elevators may be installed to enable construction personnel to travel from floor to floor eventually to the roof. Also, hoists may be installed to lift materials to upper levels. If needed, temporary flooring may be placed for use of personnel.As the building rises, pipes, ducts, and electric conduit and wiring are installed. Then, permanent floors, exterior walls, and windows are constructed. At the appropriate time, permanent elevators are installed. If required, fireproofing is placed for steel framing. Next, fixed partitions are built and the roof and its covering are put is place,Finishing operations follow. There include installation of the following: ceilings; tile; wallboard; wall paneling; plumbing fixtures; heating furnaces; air-conditioning equipment; heating and cooling devices for rooms; escalators; floor coverings; window glass; movable partitions; doors; finishing hardware; electrical equipment and apparatus, including lighting fixtures, switches, transformers, and controls; and other items called for in the drawings and specifications. Field offices, fences, bridges, and other temporary construction must be removed from the site. Utilities, such as gas, electricity, and water, are hooked up to the building. The sit is landscaped and paved. Finally, the building interior is painted and cleaned.The owner’s representatives then give the building a final inspection. If they find that the structure conforms with the contract documents, the owner accepts the project and gives the general contractor final payment on issuance by the building department of a certificate of occupancy, which indicates that the completed building meets building-code requirements.传统的施工程序众所周知，在传统的施工程序中进行施工的承包商。尽管他们想满足业主和建筑设计师的要求，但是最终还是以赚取利润为主要目标的。因此，他们最初的任务是对编写投标价格的建筑成本进行准确的估计。这就需要进行前期调查的工作并且做出施工时间表。等合约批出后，施工方必须提供所有材料并支付其费用，设备，电力，劳动力。业主此时需要进行必要的监督。一个总承包商承担一个建筑整体的责任。从事分包的承建商则需承担建造工程所需的各个工作。例如，管道承包商安装水管，电业承办商安装电气系统，电梯则由电梯承包商安装。他们与总承包商签订合同，费用由总承包商支付。有时候，除了一个总承包商，还有各种专业承包商，如电气和机械承包商，执行工作时需要与业主签订合同。这种承包商被称为间接承包商。他们的工作，由总承包商协调，但它们都是由业主直接联系。还有些时候，业主可以使用设计建造方法同时兼有设计和建筑施工单位的职能。这些单位被称为设计建造承包商。这方面的一个类型的合同聘用的变化是由一户住宅或低层住宅建筑群的开发。在房屋建筑设计和建造的住房，但设计之前需要由购买房屋的业主完成。施工过程管理往往是困难的。因此，一些业主会去寻求专家的协助，这些专家被称为专业施工经理，他们具有丰富的施工经验。施工经理与总承包商进行谈判，并选择其中一个项目。施工经理通常还监督分包商。在施工期间，它们有助于控制成本，加快运送设备和材料，并保持工作的进度。在依法行政，协助设计和建设的情况下，业主可以选择从事建筑项目经理。建筑承包商雇用的劳动力，一般有大工和小工。大工再建筑工程中从事技术活，如木工，管道工，工会成员和电工工会，小工则执行了分配给他们的工作。在施工期间，一切工作都要验收。因此，业主通过建筑师和监理经常进行督查。可能是名为工程员，建筑师或驻地工程师。作为业主的代表实地视察。核查人员必须确保工程符合合同文件的要求，并在安全的条件下进行的责任。这种检查可作出重复。此外，验收还是需要一个或多个政府机构的代表。他们必须确保工程符合法律要求，并负责检查与合同文件是否一致。这种视察一般定期或在某些阶段施工结束以后进行。地方或国家建设部门具有管辖权。这些检查的目的是确保符合当地或国家的建筑规范。以下是传统多层建筑施工的基本程序。建造开始后合同授予开发商，业主可要求开发商开始施工之前签约给或之后签约发出书面通知的同时另一部分工作继续进行。紧接着施工方根据需要获取建筑许可证，例如当地的建设，供水，污水处理，政府机构和公路部门。总承包商的计划和进度详细施工作业以及动员项目设备和人员。分包商得到通知后，做出签订合同的意向或授予分包合同书，然后给出在适当的时候进行通知。在施工前启动，总承包商要进行的一项调查就是邻近结构和地形，这些都要记录在案，并要熟悉当地情况。这项调查结束以后，随即进行布局建设。承建商的现场办事处都建在施工现场或附近。为了安全起见，必须从脚手架上移除的东西，产生的碎片都要运走。下一步，该网架是为建设工程准备的。这项工作为地下室开挖和基础开挖的深度，以及公用事业管道转移找到正确的标高。深挖掘，土方支撑，底部排出。建筑开始于基础上，然后是承重墙和结构框架的施工。梯子，楼梯，或电梯的安装，可让施工人员往返于各个楼层。此外，可安装卷扬机来运送材料。由于建筑高度的上升，管道，电力管道和线路安装以及永久地板，外墙，窗户和构造的影响。在适当的时候，永久的电梯安装。再需要的情况下可以安装防火卷帘。其次，屋顶等地方也需要安装。精加工工序安装有包括以下内容：天花板，瓷砖，墙板，墙壁镶板，水管装置，加热炉，空气调节设备，加热和冷却室装置;自动扶梯;地板，窗户玻璃;活动板，门;电气设备和仪器，包括照明灯具，开关，变压器，控制器，遵照项目的图纸和规格。外地办事处，围栏，桥梁和其他临时建筑，公共设备，如天然气，电力管道，水管，都连接到建筑上。最后，是建筑物内部的打扫和清洗。业主的代表，会给建设工程作最后检查。如果他们满意并认为符合合同文件，那么业主接受该项目，并交给总承包商的一个占用证书，这表明，总承包商已完成建设，建设部门再根据建筑规范的要求发放最后付款。

Modern architecture, not to be confused with 'contemporary architecture', is a term given to a number of building styles with similar characteristics, primarily the simplification of form and the elimination of ornament. While the style was conceived early in the 20th century and heavily promoted by a few architects, architectural educators and exhibits, very few Modern buildings were built in the first half of the century. For three decades after the Second World War, however, it became the dominant architectural style for institutional and corporate building. 1. Origins Some historians see the evolution of Modern architecture as a social matter, closely tied to the project of Modernity and hence to the Enlightenment, a result of social and political revolutions. Others see Modern architecture as primarily driven by technological and engineering developments, and it is true that the availability of new building materials such as iron, steel, concrete and glass drove the invention of new building techniques as part of the Industrial Revolution. In 1796, Shrewsbury mill owner Charles Bage first used his ‘fireproof’ design, which relied on cast iron and brick with flag stone floors. Such construction greatly strengthened the structure of mills, which enabled them to accommodate much bigger machines. Due to poor knowledge of iron's properties as a construction material, a number of early mills collapsed. It was not until the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, leading to widespread use of iron construction, this kind of austere industrial architecture utterly transformed the landscape of northern Britain, leading to the description, "Dark satanic mills" of places like Manchester and parts of West Yorkshire. The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an early example of iron and glass construction; possibly the best example is the development of the tall steel skyscraper in Chicago around 1890 by William Le Baron Jenney and Louis Sullivan. Early structures to employ concrete as the chief means of architectural expression (rather than for purely utilitarian structure) include Frank Lloyd Wright's Unity Temple, built in 1906 near Chicago, and Rudolf Steiner's Second Goetheanum, built from 1926 near Basel, Switzerland. Other historians regard Modernism as a matter of taste, a reaction against eclecticism and the lavish stylistic excesses of Victorian Era and Edwardian Art Nouveau. Whatever the cause, around 1900 a number of architects around the world began developing new architectural solutions to integrate traditional precedents (Gothic, for instance) with new technological possibilities. The work of Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright in Chicago, Victor Horta in Brussels, Antoni Gaudi in Barcelona, Otto Wagner in Vienna and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among many others, can be seen as a common struggle between old and new. 2. Modernism as Dominant Style By the 1920s the most important figures in Modern architecture had established their reputations. The big three are commonly recognized as Le Corbusier in France, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius in Germany. Mies van der Rohe and Gropius were both directors of the Bauhaus, one of a number of European schools and associations concerned with reconciling craft tradition and industrial technology. Frank Lloyd Wright's career parallels and influences the work of the European modernists, particularly via the Wasmuth Portfolio, but he refused to be categorized with them. Wright was a major influence on both Gropius and van der Rohe, however, as well as on the whole of organic architecture. In 1932 came the important MOMA exhibition, the International Exhibition of Modern Architecture, curated by Philip Johnson. Johnson and collaborator Henry-Russell Hitchcock drew together many distinct threads and trends, identified them as stylistically similar and having a common purpose, and consolidated them into the International Style. This was an important turning point. With World War II the important figures of the Bauhaus fled to the United States, to Chicago, to the Harvard Graduate School of Design, and to Black Mountain College. While Modern architectural design never became a dominant style in single-dwelling residential buildings, in institutional and commercial architecture Modernism became the pre-eminent, and in the schools (for leaders of the profession) the only acceptable, design solution from about 1932 to about 1984. Architects who worked in the international style wanted to break with architectural tradition and design simple, unornamented buildings. The most commonly used materials are glass for the facade, steel for exterior support, and concrete for the floors and interior supports; floor plans were functional and logical. The style became most evident in the design of skyscrapers. Perhaps its most famous manifestations include the United Nations headquarters (Le Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer, Sir Howard Robertson), the Seagram Building (Ludwig Mies van der Rohe), and Lever House (Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill), all in New York. A prominent residential example is the Lovell House (Richard Neutra) in Los Angeles. Detractors of the international style claim that its stark, uncompromisingly rectangular geometry is dehumanising. Le Corbusier once described buildings as "machines for living", but people are not machines and it was suggested that they do not want to live in machines. Even Philip Johnson admitted he was "bored with the box." Since the early 1980s many architects have deliberately sought to move away from rectilinear designs, towards more eclectic styles. During the middle of the century, some architects began experimenting in organic forms that they felt were more human and accessible. Mid-century modernism, or organic modernism, was very popular, due to its democratic and playful nature. Alvar Aalto and Eero Saarinen were two of the most prolific architects and designers in this movement, which has influenced contemporary modernism. Although there is debate as to when and why the decline of the modern movement occurred, criticism of Modern architecture began in the 1960s on the grounds that it was universal, sterile, elitist and lacked meaning. Its approach had become ossified in a "style" that threatened to degenerate into a set of mannerisms. Siegfried Giedion in the 1961 introduction to his evolving text, Space, Time and Architecture (first written in 1941), could begin "At the moment a certain confusion exists in contemporary architecture, as in painting; a kind of pause, even a kind of exhaustion." At the Metropolitan Museum of Art, a 1961 symposium discussed the question "Modern Architecture: Death or Metamorphosis?" In New York, the coup d'état appeared to materialize in controversy around the Pan Am Building that loomed over Grand Central Station, taking advantage of the modernist real estate concept of "air rights",[1] In criticism by Ada Louise Huxtable and Douglas Haskell it was seen to "sever" the Park Avenue streetscape and "tarnish" the reputations of its consortium of architects: Walter Gropius, Pietro Belluschi and the builders Emery Roth & Sons. The rise of postmodernism was attributed to disenchantment with Modern architecture. By the 1980s, postmodern architecture appeared triumphant over modernism, including the temple of the Light of the World, a futuristic design for its time Guadalajara Jalisco La Luz del Mundo Sede International; however, postmodern aesthetics lacked traction and by the mid-1990s, a neo-modern (or hypermodern) architecture had once again established international pre-eminence. As part of this revival, much of the criticism of the modernists has been revisited, refuted, and re-evaluated; and a modernistic idiom once again dominates in institutional and commercial contemporary practice, but must now compete with the revival of traditional architectural design in commercial and institutional architecture; residential design continues to be dominated by a traditional aesthetic. 选我的谢谢